Analysis of Primary Fine Particle National Ambient Air Quality Standard Metrics 
Johnson PRS, Graham JJ, Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 56:206–218 (Feb. 2006).
An analysis of air quality monitoring data found that 78 percent of the U.S. population could be protected if EPA lowers both the daily and annual average air quality standards for fine particles. This level of protection would be achieved if the daily standard were lowered from 65 µg/m3 to 30 µg/m3, in conjunction with a lowering of the annual average standard of 15 µg/m3 to a level of 12 µg/m3. The analysis found that the 30/12 µg/m3 suite of standards provides nearly equivalent 24-hour and annual control of PM2.5 distributions across the U.S., thus ensuring a more uniform and consistent level of protection than achieved by lowering only the daily standard.

Race, Poverty, and Potential Exposure of Middle-School Students to Air Emissions from Confined Swine Feeding Operations
Mirabelli, Maria, et al., Environ Health Perspect, 114: 591-596 (2006).
Confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs) can pollute the surrounding air with malodorous compounds, bacteria, fungi, and endotoxin. CAFO-related health impacts have been investigated primarily in adults,but children may be at greater risk because of their size and developmental stage. Since children spend considerable time at school,researchers at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill conducted an investigation of schools' proximity to swine CAFOs to determine the extent to which students may be exposed to airborne CAFO emissions. They determined that some students may encounter CAFO-associated exposures at school and also found that students of color and of low socioeconomic status were the most likely to be affected.

Particulate Air Pollution and Hospital Admissions for Congestive Heart Failure in Seven United States Cities
Wellenius GA, Schwartz J, and Mittleman MA, Am J Cardiol, Volume 97, Issue 3, 404-408 (February 2006).
PM10 concentrations below current EPA standards are associated with an increased rate of hospital admissions for congestive heart failure, in a study of seven U.S. cities.

Particulate Air Pollution and the Rate of Hospitalization for Congestive Heart Failure among Medicare Beneficiaries in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Wellenius GA, Bateson TF, Mittleman MA, Schwartz J., Am J Epidem 2005; 161:1030-1036.
The results of this study suggest that short-term elevations in air pollution from traffic-related sources may trigger acute cardiac decompensation in heart failure patients.

The Relationship between Ambient Air Pollution and Heart Rate Variability Differs for Individuals with Heart and Pulmonary Disease
Bell, Michelle, et al., Environ Health Perspect, 114: 560-566 (2006).
This study looks at associations between concentrations of ambient fine particles [particulate matter < 2.5 µm aerodynamic diameter (PM2.5)] and heart rate variability (HRV). Results suggest an important role for traffic-related pollution.

Increased Risk of Paroxysmal Atrial Fibrillation Episodes Associated with Acute Increases in Ambient Air Pollution
Rich DQ, et al, Environ Health Perspec, 114:120-123 (2006). 
This study evaluated cardiac arrhythmias in patients with implanted cardioverter defibrillators in association with various measures of community air pollution. Breathing increased ambient ozone concentrations during the previous hour was associated with increased risk of episodes of a particular type of cardiac arrythmia, suggesting that community air pollution may be a precipitant of these events. These episodes, known as atrial fibrillation, are not generally considered lethal, but are tied to an increased risk of premature death, People with this condition have a 5-fold increased risk of stroke if their episodes are not controlled by medication.

Induction of Asthma and the Environment: What we know and need to know
Selgrade, Mary et al., Environ Health Perspect, 114: 615-619 (2006). 
In this article, we briefly characterize asthma and its public health and economic impacts, and intervention strategies that have been successfully used to prevent induction of asthma in the workplace. We conclude with the findings of seven working groups that focus on ambient air, indoor pollutants (biologics) , occupational exposures, early life stages, older adults, intrinsic susceptibility, and lifestyle. These groups found strong scientific support for public health efforts to limit in utero and postnatal exposure to cigarette smoke. However, with respect to other potential types of interventions, participants noted many scientific questions, which are summarized in this article. Research to address these questions could have a significant public health and economic impact that would be well worth the investment.  

Prevalence and implementation of IAQ programs in U.S. Schools
Moglia, Dena, et al., Environ Health Perspect, 114:141-146 (2006).
The investigators determined the extent to which U.S. schools are implementing indoor air quality (IAQ) programs. According to the study results, forty-two percent of schools in the U.S. have an IAQ management program, and there has been sustained growth from 1998-2002 in the number of schools that have such programs. Nearly half of those schools use the EPA's Tools for Schools program.

Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Hospital Admission for Cardiovascular and Respiratory Diseases
Francesca Dominici, et al. Journal of the American Medical Association, 295:1127-1134 (2006).
This study finds that short-term exposure to PM2.5 increases the risk for hospital admission for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. The researchers used data from the new national monitoring network for PM 2.5.

The Exposure-Response Curve for Ozone and Risk of Mortality and the Adequacy of Current Ozone Regulations
Michelle Bell, et al., Environ Health Perspect, Vol. 14, No. 4, April 2006.
The study, sponsored by the Environmental Protection Agency and the Centers for Disease Control, found that if a safe level for ozone exists, it is only at very low or natural levels and far below current U.S. and international regulations. The study finds that even if all 98 counties in the study met the current ozone standard every day, there would still be a significant link between ozone and premature mortality, indicating that further reductions in ozone pollution would benefit public health, even in areas that meet regulatory requirements.

Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Mortality in Nine California Counties: Results from CALFINE
Bart Ostro, et al., Environ Health Perspect, Vol. 114, No. 1, January 2006.
In one of the first studies of its kind, scientists at Cal/EPA's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) and the University of California have found that fine particles emitted by motor vehicles and other sources may increase deaths from heart and lung ailments in California. While many studies have documented that airborne particulate matter in general (defined as particles less than 10 microns in diameter) can increase death rates, the OEHHA study was one of the first to examine such associations involving fine particles (defined as particles less than 2.5 microns in diameter).

Reduction in Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Mortality: Extended Follow-up of the Harvard Six Cities Study
Laden, Francine, et al., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Vol 173, pp. 667-672 (2006).
This article discusses the findings of investigators who extended the Harvard Six Cities fine particulate air pollution study by eight years and found that reduced levels of tiny particle pollution during this period lowered mortality risk for participants. The investigators found that the largest drops in adjusted mortality rates were in cities with the greatest reduction in fine particulate air pollution (PM2.5). They report that this reduction was observed specifically for deaths due to cardiovascular and respiratory disease and not from lung cancer, a disease with a longer latency period and less reversibility. 

Air Pollution an Birth Weight Among Term Infants in California
Parker JD, Woodruff TJ, Basu R, Schoendorf KC, Pediatrics, 115:121-128 (2005).
A study of California infants who were born full term has shown a small but consistent effect of PM2.5 on birth weight. Researchers matched air pollution monitoring data with California birth records. The pollution measurements were collected within 5 miles of the mother’s residence, and were averaged for the time period corresponding to the pregnancy. California mothers who lived in areas with the highest PM2.5 exposures during their pregnancy delivered slightly smaller babies, by 30 grams, compared to those with lower exposures, after controlling for demographic factors and carbon monoxide. No associations were observed between carbon monoxide and birth weight.

Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) Air Pollution and Selected Causes of Postneonatal Infant Mortality in California
Woodruff TJ, Parker JD, Schoendorf KC, Environ Health Perspec, 114:786–790 (2006).
A follow-up study by the same research group linked PM2.5 monitoring data to infants born in California in 1999 and 2000 using the addresses of mothers who lived within five miles of a monitor.

Childhood Asthma and Student Performance at School
Taras, H., et al., Journal of School Health, Vol. 75, No. 8:296-312 (October 2005).
This article examines the connection between asthma and student performance. Research reveals evidence that rates of absenteeism are higher among students with asthma.

Asthma and Farm Exposures in a Cohort of Rural Iowa Children
Merchant, James, et al., Environ Health Perspect, 113:350-356 (2005).
Epidemiologic studies of farm children are of international interest because farm children are less often atopic, have less allergic disease, and often have less asthma than do nonfarm children--findings consistent with the hygiene hypothesis. This project studied a cohort of rural Iowa children to determine the association between farm and other environmental risk factors with four asthma outcomes. The high prevalence of rural childhood asthma and asthma symptoms underscores the need for asthma screening programs and improved asthma diagnosis and treatment. The high prevalence of asthma health outcomes among farm children living on farms that raise swine and raise swine and add antibiotics to feed, despite lower rates of atopy and personal histories of allergy, suggests the need for awareness and prevention measures and more population-based studies to further assess environmental and genetic determinants of asthma among farm children.

A Preliminary Investigation of Asthma Mortality in Schools
Greiling, A., et al., Journal of School Health, Vol. 75, No. 8: 286-290 (October 2005).
Key factors in preventing asthma deaths and exacerbations in schools include identification of students with diagnosed asthma, communication with parents and health care providers, removal of triggers in the immediate school environment, and maximizing access to needed medications.

Mounting Evidence Indicts Fine-Particle Pollution
Science Magazine, Vol. 307:1858-1861, March 25, 2005.
Particle air pollution clearly causes substantial deaths and illness, but what makes fine particles so toxic - the size, the chemical compound, or both?

Asthma among California's Children, Adults and the Elderly: A Geographic Look by Legislative Districts
Mendez-Luck, Carolyn A., et al., UCLA Center for Health Policy Research, Sept 2004.
A new policy brief from the UCLA Center for Health Policy Research presents data by California legislative and Congressional districts on the asthma symptom rates for the more three million California children, adults and elderly who suffered from the condition in 2002. This policy brief highlights the geographic variation in asthma rates across the state for all Californians previously diagnosed with asthma that had at least one symptom in the previous year. The first of-its-kind, sub-county data in this publication are useful for policymakers, advocates and medical providers who are working to address the growing problem of asthma throughout California and within local communities.

Air Resources Board study links diesel fumes to illnesses
A recent study on the cargo industry concentrated around major seaports found that air pollutants generated by California's cargo industry will result in about 750 premature deaths this year and tens of billions of dollars in related healthcare costs over the next 15 years. Diesel-burning ships, trains and trucks tied to the state's explosive international trade industry are largely responsible for the pollution problem, according to the study by the state Air Resources Board staff. The study warns that Californians who live near ports, rail yards and along high-traffic corridors are subsidizing the goods-movement sector with their health. Public hearings on the proposed steps to reduce pollution will be held throughout California in early 2006.

Childhood Asthma and Exposure to Traffic and Nitrogen Dioxide
Gauderman, J., et al., Epidemiology, 16(6):737-743, November 2005.
This study shows that children's risk of being diagnosed with asthma increases the closer they live to freeways.

Characterizing the range of children's air pollutant exposure during school bus commutes
Sabin, L., et al., Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environ Epidemiology, 15, 377-387 (2005).
This study reports on the measured real-time and integrated (averaged over a specific time period) air concentrations inside of three types of school buses--conventional, older diesel, diesel with particle trap, and compressed natural gas.

Ambient Air Pollution and Atherosclerosis in Los Angeles
KŸnzli, N., et al., Environ Health Perspect., 2005 Feb;113(2):201-6.
New research article showing that the connection between air pollution and early death to be three times as large as that reported in past studies of cities in the United States.

Ozone and Short-term Mortality in 95 US Urban Communities, 1987-2000
Bell, ML, et al., JAMA, 292:2372-2378 (2004).
This study was the first large, nationwide endeavor that links day-to-day ozone levels with an increased number of deaths. The researchers said they found a link between mortality and ozone even in areas with low pollution, at levels below the current federal health standard. The study found that when ozone levels increased by a fairly small amount, 10 parts per billion, the daily deaths from non-injury causes over the next few days increased on average 0.52 percent [or an estimated 3767 additional deaths annually for the 95 communities studied]. For cardiovascular and respiratory deaths, the increase was slightly higher, 0.64 percent, and for senior citizens, deaths increased by 0.70 percent.

Struggling to breathe: The epidemic of asthma among children and adolescents in the San Joaquin Valley
Hernandez, R., et al., Central California Children's Institute, CSU Fresno (2004).
The results of the Valley-based 2001 CHIS indicate that there are differences or disparities in the prevalence of asthma and asthma symptoms among children by age, gender, ethnicity, income level and place of residence. Asthma-related costs include health care for asthma management, local revenues lost through decreased school attendance, and disruptions in daily routines that may affect the employment, income, and quality of life of families of children diagnosed with asthma.

The Effect of Air Pollution on Lung Development from 10 to 18 Years of Age
Gauderman, et al., New England Journal of Medicine (2004).
The University of Southern California study, which followed over 1,700 Los Angeles-area children for eight years, found a link between lung damage and living in cities with elevated levels of nitrogen dioxide, acid vapor and PM10 particulates. Researchers concluded that children's lungs do not recover from damage sustained by breathing air with high levels of ground-level pollution.

Children's Health Study Finds Slower Lung Function Growth Rate, Asthma Onset in Children Exposed to Pollution
California Air Resources Board (May 14, 2004).
The Children's Health Study, which began in 1992, is a large, long-term, study of the effects of chronic air pollution exposures on the health of children living in Southern California. Children may be more strongly affected by air pollution because their lungs and their bodies are still developing. Children are also exposed to more air pollution than adults since they breathe faster and spend more time outdoors in strenuous activities.

Inside the Greenhouse: The Impacts of CO2 and Climate Change on Public Health in the Inner City
Epstein, P., and Rogers, C., Report from the Center for Health and the Global Environment, Harvard Medical School (2004).
Millions of poor and minority children in America's cities likely will suffer even higher rates of asthma as the result of a "powerful one-two punch" of higher levels of pollen and changes in the types of molds spurred by global warming along with unhealthy urban air masses caused by the burning of fossil fuel by cars, trucks and buses, according to a warning issued by Harvard researchers and the American Public Health Association (APHA).

Cardiovascular Mortality and Long-Term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution: Epidemiological Evidence of General Pathophysiological Pathways of Disease
Pope, C.A. et al., Circulation, Vol. 109, No. 1: 71-77 (Jan. 2004).
Air pollution causes twice as many deaths from heart disease as it does from lung cancer and other respiratory ailments. Long-term exposure to particulate matter is most strongly associated with mortality attributable to ischemic heart disease, dysrhythmias, heart failure and cardiac arrest. This study shows that a 10 mg/m3 rise in fine particulate matter concentrations raises the risk of death from these cardiovascular diseases by 13 to 18%.

Residential Proximity to Traffic and Adverse Birth Outcomes in Los Angeles County, California, 1994-1996
Wilhelm, M., and Ritz, G., Environ Health Perspect., Vol. 111, No. 2: 207-216 (Feb. 2003).
Researchers at the School of Public Health at the University of California Los Angeles found that women living close to heavily traveled roadways experience a 10-20% increase in the risk of preterm birth and of term low birth weight in infants. Those women who live in high background air pollution areas, impoverished areas, or whose third trimester fell during the autumn and winter months, when pollution levels are higher, experienced even higher risks - a 39% greater risk of having a low birth weight and a 24% greater risk of having a preterm low birth weight infant. These risk factors control for socioeconomic status, maternal age, race, and prenatal care.

Effects of Ambient Air Pollution on Symptom Severity and Medication Use in Children with Asthma
Slaughter, J.C., et al., Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology, Vol. 91, No. 4: 346-53 (Oct. 2003).
Researchers at the University of Washington investigated the short-term effects of air pollutants on a panel of 133 children with asthma and found that increases in particulate matter are significantly associated with an increased odds of a more severe asthma attacks and medication use. The study found that a 10 µ/m3 rise in fine particulate matter concentrations increased by 20 percent the child's risk of having a more serious asthma attack the day following exposure to particulate matter.

Particulate Air Pollution And Morbidity In The California Central Valley: A High Particulate Pollution Region
Van Den Eeden S.K., et al., Final report prepared for California Air Resources Board (July 2002).
Increased particulate pollution directly correlates with increased hospitalization and emergency room visits for chronic and acute respiratory ailments in California's Central Valley. Every additional 10 microgram per cubic meter (mg/m3) of PM-2.5 increased hospitalizations and emergency room visits due to chronic respiratory ailments by 7.5 and 6.5 percent respectively. With current particulate levels in the Central Valley, this can led to over 90 and 100 percent increases in hospital and ER visits.

Lung Cancer, Cardiopulmonary Mortality and Long-Term Exposure to Fine Particulate Air Pollution
Pope, C.A. et al., JAMA, Vol. 287, No. 9 (March 2002).
People living in the most polluted cities have a 16% increased risk of lung cancer compared to those living amidst cleaner air. This risk is on par with long-term exposure to second-hand cigarette smoke or moderate obesity. For every 10-mg/m3 increase in fine particulate air pollution, the risk of cardiopulmonary and lung cancer deaths increases 6% and 8% respectively.

Asthma in exercising children exposed to ozone: a cohort study
McConnell, Rob, et al., The Lancet, Vol. 359: 386-391 (Feb. 2002).
Ozone not only aggravates asthma symptoms, it may cause new cases in active, healthy children. A study conducted in southern California shows that children ages 9-11 who play three or more sports in a high ozone and particulate matter area are 3.3 times more likely to develop asthma. Active girls are at the greatest risk, with 4.7 times the risk of developing asthma than girls living in low pollution areas. The study followed the development of 265 new cases of asthma out of 3535 healthy children over four years.

The Importance of Population Susceptibility for Air Pollution Risk Assessment: A Case Study of Power Plants Near Washington D.C.
Levy, Jonathan I., Environ Health Perspect., Vol. 110 No. 12: 1253-1260 (Dec. 2002).
This study shows disproportional impacts of pollution on lower educated, diabetics, and African Americans. The Harvard School of Public Health and Department of Environmental Health study found that if five older power plants in the Washington D.C. area were to implement the Best Available Control Measures, as stipulated by the Clean Air Act, they would prevent 240 premature deaths, 60 cardiovascular hospital admissions, and 160 asthma emergency room visits. The research presents a strong case to consider socio-economic demographics when designing pollution control regulations. For example, while only 25 percent of the population studied had less than a high school education, this group suffers approximately half of the mortality caused by the plants emissions.

Inhalation of Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Ozone Causes Acute Arterial Vasoconstriction in Healthy Adults
Brook, R.D., Circulation, Vol. 105; 1534-1536 (Apr. 2002).
This study is part of the ongoing attempt to understand the physiological mechanism for particulates and ozone to affect non-respiratory systems. The experimental study found that exposing 25 people to elevated concentrations of fine particulates and ozone (to mimic exposure in urban areas) caused their blood vessels to constrict 2-4%. Even a very short-term exposure causes this constriction, enough to trigger cardiac events in those at risk of heart disease.

Effect of Air Pollutants on Acute Stroke Mortality
Hong, et al., Environ Health Perspect., Vol. 110 No. 2 (Feb. 2002).
Women and elderly are at an especially high risk of acute stroke death due to the effects of particulate air pollutants. For every 10-mg/m3 increase in particulate matter and ozone, the researchers observed a 1.5 % and 2.9% increase in deaths caused by stroke across all demographics.

U.S. Cancer Risk Estimates Determined for Diesel Exhaust Particles
Burnett, T.R., et al., JAMA, Vol. 287 No. 9 (March 6, 2002).

Diesel Exhaust Particles Linked to Asthma
Pandya, Robert, et al., Environ Health Perspect., 110 (suppl. 1): 103-112 (2002).
Several components of air pollution have been linked to asthma. In addition to the well-studied critera air pollutants, such as nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and ozone, diesel exhaust and diesel exhaust particles (DEPs) also appear to play a role in respiratory and allergic diseases. DEPs appear to have greater immunologic effects in the presence of environmental allergens than they do alone. This immunologic evidence may help explain the epidemiologic studies indicating that children living along major trucking thoroughfares are at increased risk for asthmatic and allergic symptoms and are more likely to have objective evidence of respiratory dysfunction.

Asthma in California in 2001: High Rates Affect Most Population Groups
Brown, Richard et al., California Health Interview Survey (May 2002).
Asthma is the number one cause of emergency room visits in the United States. One in six children in Fresno County have asthma. Fresno County has the highest prevalence rates of childhood asthma in the state - 16.4% - compared to a state average of 9.6% and a national average of 5.3%. In California alone, there were 300,000 asthma-related visits in 2001. Native American, Latino, and African American populations are hit the hardest due to lack of access to health care.

Scientific Findings on Air Pollution Link to Asthma, Other Respiratory Illnesses
Moore, Curtis and Bates, David M.D. (Eds.), Health and Clean Air Newsletter, (Fall 2001).
Each year air pollution claims upwards of 50,000 lives in the United States alone, but this and other information too often fails to make its way out of the pages of scientific journals and into the hands and minds of ordinary citizens to whom it is vitally important. The Health and Clean Air Newsletter is our attempt to make this information available to readers ranging from the heads of parent teacher associations to reporters, without sacrificing accuracy.

Passage of Inhaled Particles into the Blood Circulation in Humans
Nemmar, A. et al., Circulation, Vol. 105: 411-414 (Dec. 2001).
A research team in Belgium demonstrated a likely physiological pathway for inhaled particulates to cause non-respiratory damage such as heart attacks. By using a tracer molecule, they found that inhaled fine particulates are able to transfer from the lungs to the circulatory system - within minutes the particles disperse in the blood vessels and enter the heart and other organs. Via this pathway, the fine particulates can lead to an array of cardiovascular diseases.

Increased Particulate Air Pollution and the Triggering of Myocardial Infarction
Peters, Annette et al., Circulation, Vol. 103: 2810-2815 (March 2001).
This Harvard research team was the first to prove that elevated concentrations of particulate matter not only aggravate existing cardiac conditions, but also can actually cause myocardial infarctions (heart attacks) in healthy adults. This study has important implications for particulate matter monitoring. Currently, only a 24-hour average is monitored whereas even a two-hour exposure to increased levels of particulate matter, such as experienced when sitting in traffic, can trigger a heart attack.

Human Health Effects of Agriculture: Physical Diseases and Illnessess
Kirkhorn, Steven, et al., National Ag Safety Database, (2001).
This paper discusses the progress made in identification of new respiratory syndromes related to confined animal feeding operations, pesticide-related illnesses, cancers implicated with agricultural exposures, and ergonomics in agriculture. The focus will be upon the current state of knowledge in these areas, recommendations for further improvement in research techniques, and the potential application of this information to improve human health in production agriculture nation wide.

Effect of Air Pollution on Preterm Birth Among Children Born in Southern California Between 1989 and 1993
Ritz, Beate et al., Epidemiology, Vol. 11: 502-511 (2000).
Researchers at the School of Public Health at the University of California Los Angeles evaluated the effect of PM-10, ozone, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide, and exposure during pregnancy on the occurrence of preterm birth in a cohort of 97,518 neonates born in Southern California. The study found that the frequency of preterm births is significantly higher during periods of increased PM-10 concentrations. A 20% increase in preterm birth was observed for each 50-mg increase in ambient PM-10 levels over 6 weeks before birth and a 16% increase when averaging over the first month of pregnancy.

Asthma and the Environment: A Strategy to Protect Children
President's Task Force on Environmental Health Risks & Safety Risks to Children (May 2000).
This report summarizes the known health impacts of ozone pollution. Not only does ozone aggravate the respiratory system, reduce lung function, cause chest pain and coughs, and increase susceptibility to respiratory infections and symptoms of respiratory diseases; it can lead to long-term irreversible damage to lung tissue. Asthma accounts for over ten million missed school days per year and is one of the leading causes of school absenteeism. Rates of asthma have more than doubled in the past fifteen years. The effects of asthma are far reaching, but impact African American populations in particular - death and hospitalization rates are over four and three times that of white American children respectively.